Cynocephalus volans, Linnaeus, 1758

1. View Plate 13

Philippine Colugo

Cynocephalus volans

French: Galéopitheque des Philippines / German: Philippinen-Gleitflieger / Spanish: Colugo de Filipinas

Other common names: Philippine Flying Lemur

Taxonomy. Lemur volans Linnaeus, 1758 , “Asia.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1908 to the “Philippine Islands.” O. Thomas in 1908 clarified the confusion about the type locality of C. volans from the literature that predated Linnaeus’s original description. G. B. Corbet and J. E. Hill in 1992 noted that C. volans has never been known to occur in “Pampanga [Province|” on Luzon Island as frequently and incorrectly referenced as the type locality, but it does occur on other islands in the Philippines. Although there are no described subspecies, there is substantial genetic divergence suggesting that C. volans has at least two potentially cryptic species (Visayan Islands vs. Mindanao/Basilan islands), even though its radiation is more recent (c.1-2-5 million years ago). Taxonomy requires reassessment. Monotypic.

Distribution. Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Maripipi, Bohol, Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao, Basilan, and Tongkil Is, S Philippines. View Figure

Descriptive notes. Head-body 340-420 mm, tail 170-280 mm, ear 29 mm, hindfoot 81-86 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Philippine Colugois slightly smaller than the Sunda Colugo ( Galeopterus variegatus ). Females are larger than males. Philippine Colugos are medium-sized and arboreal, with the most extensive patagium of any mammal other than the related Sunda Colugo, enabling gliding up to 150 m. When gliding, females carry their young suspended across their abdomens. Color of short, soft pelage varies geographically from brown to gray. Some individuals have white spots primarily on forelegs and shoulders or variably on their bodies. Coat color of males is more rufous or darker brown than that of females, which is usually gray. Philippine Colugos have large heads, small ears, large forward-facing eyes, and axial skeletons highly adapted for gliding. They move poorly on the ground. Hooked claws allow them to suspend vertically on trees and hang upside down from tree limbs. They have unique comb-like lower incisors that project forward. The Philippine Colugo has larger blade-like anterior teeth, deeper mandible, and more robust masticator musculature than the Sunda Colugo, suggesting differences in diet. Teeth are unique and include insectivore-like traits and features for shearing and grinding vegetation.

Habitat. Tropical rainforests, coconut and rubber plantations, gardens with fruit trees, shrubs, and interspersed secondary forests. Philippine Colugos do not appearto be tied exclusively to any specific trees although they do appear to have some feeding preferences. They require treestaller than 25 m in height for gliding because they do

not move well across open ground. They do occur in areas with human activities, but it is not known to what extent anthropogenic factors affect their distribution, abundance, and behavior.

Food and Feeding. Philippine Colugos are generalist folivores, feeding on ¢.50% of the available tree species where they occur including Syzygium malaccense ( Myrtaceae ), Palaquium luzoniense ( Sapotaceae ), Elaecarpus sp. ( Elaeocarpaceae ), Neolitsea sp. ( Lauraceae ), and other unidentified species of Syzygium and Palaquium . Young leaves from tips of tree branches make up the largest proportion of the Philippine Colugo’s diet, but flower buds, fruits, and ants are also eaten.

Breeding. Philippine Colugos breed year-round and likely give birth to two or more offspring per year. Exact gestation is unknown but estimated at 60-150 days. Females give birth to one young. Males are not known to contribute directly to the care of the offspring but have been observed to nuzzle and groom immature offspring. Adult size is reached at three years of age, but it is unknown if sexual maturity is reached prior to that age. Maleslikely breed with 1-3 females that, along with resulting offspring, make up the primary social group for the Philippine Colugo. Copulation occurs in forest canopies. Life span of the Philippine Colugo is unknown.

Activity patterns. Philippine Colugos are exclusively arboreal. They are nocturnal, with active period between 18:00 h and 06:00 h. Colugos forage throughout their active period with two peaks each night, one between 17:30 h and 21:00 h and another between 03:00 h and 05:00 h, interspersed with periods of resting, grooming, climbing, and gliding.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Average nightly movements for Philippine Colugos are 1011-1764 m. Dispersal patterns are unknown. Monthly home ranges are 6-4-13-4 ha. Philippine Colugos are generally solitary but can be observed interacting in small social groups of 3-5 adult individuals. Groups usually consist of a single male, 2—4 females, and their offspring. Males are territorial and scent-mark their territories with urine; they actively rebuff intruding males. Social interactions are rarely observed but do occur particularly between mating males and females and females and their offspring.

Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Although Philippine Colugos use secondary and primary rainforests and coconut and rubber plantations, they are vulnerable to deforestation. They are hunted and trapped for meat in some areas including Mindanao and for fur on Bohol, which is used to make hats; they are killed in plantations as pests. Change in classification from Vulnerable to Least Concern on The IUCN Red List in 2008 was largely based on continued use of degraded habitat. Nevertheless, status and population size are unknown, and thereis evidence for declines in numbers of Philippine Colugos. Recent phylogenetic studies indicate there might be cryptic taxa that potentially meet Endangered criteria on The IUCN Red List. It should be noted that to date, estimates of dispersal and home range size of the Philippine Colugo are based on data from just six radio-collared individuals from a single study. Additional research is required to accurately understand life history, ecology, and conservation status of the Philippine Colugo.

Bibliography. Beard (1993a), Corbet & Hill (1992), Ducrocq et al. (1992), Gingerich (1976), Gingerich & Gunnell (2005), Gonzalez et al. (2008), Holmes & Austad (1994), Janetka, Helgen et al. (2008), Janeéka, Miller et al. (2007), Lim, B.L. (1967b), Lim, N.T.L. (2007), Marivaux et al. (2006), Mason, Li Gang, Helgen & Murphy (2011),

Mason, Li Gang, Minx et al. (2016), Meredith et al. (2011), Moritz et al. (2013), Nowak (1999), Rickart et al. (1993), Rose & Simons (1977), Stafford & Szalay (2000), Thomas (1908a), Wharton (1950), Wible (1993), Wilson & Reeder (2005), Wischusen (1990), Wischusen & Richmond (1998), Wischusen et al. (1994).